inheritance:
the intergenerational effects of the holocaust on the second generation
jenna nowlan
There is a plethora of research available which documents the experiences of the children of Holocaust survivors, sometimes referred to as the second generation. The persecution experienced by many survivors was unparalleled in its horror, and “…it may be impossible for any person ever to resolve a trauma like that of the Holocaust, in particular when it involves the extermination of parents and other close relatives under such dark and atrocious circumstances”. As more survivors began sharing their stories, and parents instilled in their children the need to bear witness to the atrocities that had taken place, their children opened up about their experiences and others began to take notice. The children of survivors were born into families trying to cope, in their own ways, with the past. While no two families are exactly alike, reports published have brought light to the shared experiences of the second generation. Factors such as parent’s openness to discuss the Holocaust had a direct impact on their children, as did the family’s location immediately following the war. The once thriving Hasidic communities of Eastern Europe experienced profound social and religious readjustment. In their immigration to North American and Israel many Hasidim attempted to recreate their former lifestyles in Eastern Europe, struggling to raise their children in the aftermath of the horrors of the Holocaust. Unique from their peers in the diaspora, the children of survivors living in the State of Israel have experienced the intergenerational impacts differently.
The experiences of the children of survivors begin with those of their parents. For those who survived the Holocaust as children, there are several factors that determine how their experiences are passed on. Denial, or hiding, of ones Jewish identity or heritage depended largely on their immediately location following World War II. Where they are currently living is irrelevant, even if they are not at risk for persecution or anti-Semitism in their current country of residence. The religious upbringing of child survivors also plays a role. Those raised in Orthodox homes often hold onto and pass down their heritage, while those raised in more assimilated homes are more likely to hide it.
A study on Dutch Jewish children of parent survivors, published in the Bulletin of the Jerusalem Centre for Research Into the Late Effects of the Holocaust, drew upon already published reports, and research done in coordination with different therapists from several Dutch organizations, both Jewish and non-Jewish, government funded and private. Previously published reports had concluded that the homes of children of survivors had several things in common. Firstly, there family life is based either on reviving Judaism, as a religion and culture, or centered on achieving a sense of “psychological security”. Children reported their parents were overly anxious regarding their security and often overprotective. In addition, many spoke of secrecy, about “…the existence of a family secret…[and] silence about persecution and murdered family members, and the emotions involved”. Children of survivors spoke about problems with forming their identity, insecurity, vulnerability, struggling with their family history, anxiety, guilt, and aggression. So prevalent are these traits among the children of survivors that “…members of the second generation have so many characteristics in common that they easily recognize themselves in other members of the group. Together they are more able to identify deeper, underlying problems”.
A study of American children of survivors found that the willingness of their parents to discuss the Holocaust had an impact on how their children identified. In homes where parents were more open, children were more likely to have a stronger ethnic, cultural, or religious Jewish identity, while children raised in homes where it was not spoken about were more likely to feel ashamed, and attempt to distance themselves from any affiliation with Jewish identity. The children of survivors who had intermarried reported a weakened Jewish identity, while overall, children of survivors who had some level of Jewish identity were found be more involved activism regarding defense of Israel and the Jewish people. The American study contrasted with the Dutch findings; whereby American children of survivors were more likely to identify with Israel and Judaism, while the Dutch respondents expressed that “…for many of them Jewish history offers no attractive alternative for interpretation, as Jewish history is linked with suffering and danger”.
One of the most profoundly impacted groups was the Hasidim. The lasting impact of the Holocaust determined the framework within which they lived their lives. Hasidic Judaism is a strict stream of Orthodox Judaism that, for hundreds of years, was centered in Eastern Europe. The theological beliefs of the Hasidim and the enormous influence held by the Rabbis contributed to the communities’ destruction during the Holocaust, and shaped the way they rebuilt in America. Each Hasidic sect, whether it be Belz, Satmar, Breslov, Bobov, Chabad-Lubavitch, or a number of other smaller sects, were centered around the Rabbinical dynasties. Theology was inseparable from politics and daily life, and frequently came first and foremost in decision-making.
In the years immediately prior to World War II, there were three central messages Hasidic Rabbis sent to their communities. The first was that of anti-Zionism. Settling in, what was at the time Mandatory Palestine, prior to the coming of the Messiah was seen as heresy, and a desecration of G-ds name. Immigration to America, a country that was considered unclean, was also discouraged. The second message was against assimilation. By holding tightly to traditional dress, continuing a high level of religious observance and encouraging the use of Yiddish as the vernacular, the religious affiliation of the Hasidism was unmistakable. Unable to assimilate or disguise themselves as gentiles, a vital means of survival was taken away. The final message was one of loyalty, where many prominent Rabbis emphasized the need for followers to stay within communities. These three messages proved damaging to the Hasidic communities throughout Eastern Europe, which experienced nearly unparalleled devastation. In Poland, formerly the heart of Hasidism, only 15% of Polish Jews survived. Yisakhar Teichthal, a Hasidic Rabbi from Czechoslovakia, was one of the few Rabbis that called for an exodus from Eastern Europe, and who altered his anti-Zionist stance in light of the worsening persecution in Europe. He spoke publicly against the anti-Zionist rulings of other Hasidic Rabbis, decrying their lack of action prior to the war, “for their fanatical opposition to the [Zionist] national movement, and for their loss of the opportunity to save the Jewish people from extermination”. The Holocaust marked the end of the prominent Hasidic dynasties in Eastern Europe.
Many of the survivors immigrated to the United States following the war, hoping to salvage what was left of their lives in Eastern Europe and rebuild in America. Many had left their religious beliefs in Europe, using American to distance themselves from the Rabbis, whose inaction only aided the destruction of their communities, and from the God they felt wasn’t present when needed most. For those who desired to rebuild, the Jewish community they found in America was worlds away from that they had left behind. Between 1881 and 1914 nearly two millions Jewish immigrants came to America. The majority of these immigrants were non-observant, moved throughout the country and didn’t build strong communities, lacked the dominant Orthodox leadership found in Eastern Europe, and assimilated, raising their children without cultural and religion traditions. Witnessing the assimilation of American Jews only made Hasidic leaders more determined to keep their traditions. The impact of the Holocaust on survivors and their children has led to the formation of vibrant and growing communities throughout the United States, especially New York and New Jersey, and in Canada, in cities such as Montreal, and in Israel, with large populations in Beitar Illit, Ashdod, and Beit Shemesh. While there are several smaller communities in Eastern Europe, the focus there is centered more on the revival of Judaism, compared to the rebuilding of Hasidic dynasties. The continuation of Hasidic Judaism into the second generation, the children of survivors, is a story of both triumph and tragedy. It has taken but one generation for Hasidic community to once “…again [establish] itself on spiritual, social, and demographic planes. In so doing it has once more proved its unbelievable power of survival and its inherent vitality and creativity”. Survivors, and their children, have passed on their distinctly Eastern European characteristics and ways of life; Yiddish as an everyday language, strict religious and cultural traditions, and fervent efforts to prevent assimilation. The tragedy comes from the shattered worldview of Hasidic Jews. Survivors, and their descendants, struggled with anger towards their Rabbis, who had just years ago held a near ineffable position within their society. A deeply held mistrust of those outside the community, as memories of neighbors who had turned on them remained vivid, lead to the isolation of many Hasidic sects. These feelings were passed down, alongside “…grave theological misgivings, a desperate quest for divine providence, profound guilt feelings, and attempts to explain the catastrophe as a divine punishment”.
The founding of the modern State of Israel, on May 14th 1948, the embodiment of the Zionist dreams of Theodore Herzl and David Ben-Gurion, altered the future of the Jewish people. Many of Israel’s new immigrants and citizens were Holocaust survivors, and today their children and grandchildren represent a significant demographic cohort of Israeli society. Living in Israel has provided a different life than experienced by those in the diaspora. A 2003 study published in The American Journal of Psychiatry examined the presence of trauma in Holocaust survivors, their daughters and their granddaughters, in families that had been living in Israel for the past 50 to 60 years. The findings were compared to those of a separate group of Israelis, who had made aliyah with their parents prior to World War II. The study found that “…there were significantly more subjects suffering from unresolved loss and trauma…”within the survivors, than with those who had immigrated prior to World War II. Another study, published in The Journal of Traumatic Stress, also examined impacts of the Holocaust on survivors, and their children, living in Israel. Both studies highlighted the relationship between survivors and the State of Israel.
As so many Holocaust survivors made aliyah following the war, there existed a community “…of many thousands of fellow-survivors who had lived through similar traumatic experiences, and who may be the only ones to really understand their suffering”. For Holocaust survivors, living in a Jewish state meant that anti-Semitism was unlikely, that they were the majority. A government meant that for the first time, there was Jewish self-determination, and the creation of Israel’s military, the Israel Defense Forces, meant that no longer were they reliant on others for self-defense. Building a state requires enormous effort from all citizens, and survivors were at the forefront of establishing a democratic government, founding social and cultural institutions, and creating a viable and robust economy. This focus on the creation and future of Israel was an effective way for survivors to deal with trauma. The concept of “collective memory” also plays a central role. Being a part of a nation who, together, had shared experiences acted as a “protective factor”.
Within the Israeli second generation, the children of survivors, secondary trauma was not prevalent. In instances where secondary trauma was found, it was most often in children whose parents were both survivors. However, the report published in The Journal of Traumatic Stress found that when compared to their peers, whose parents were not survivors, there was “…a significant difference in psychological well-being and adaptation between the second-generation Holocaust survivors and their comparisons”. The report also found higher rates of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in the adult children of survivors, focusing specifically on the effects of the 1982 Lebanon War. As military service is mandatory for Israeli Jews, the study found that adult children of survivors were “more vulnerable to develop PTSD in combat” than their peers. There were higher rated of PTSD among children of survivors, and their symptoms lasted longer than those of their peers.
Throughout all the studies completed and reports published, the underlying theme is by far the incredible resilience of Holocaust survivors and their children. From the Dutch second generation, who’ve struggled with identity and anxiety, all while remaining in and rebuilding a country ravaged by the War. The Hasidim in North America and Israel, who held so tightly to their former way of life, and have successfully replicated it throughout the world, to both the benefit, and at the same time the detriment, of the second generation. For many survivors, and the second generation, in Israel, the existence of a Jewish state itself became “…a symbol of the ultimate failure of the “Final Solution”…[within] Israel, various memorials have been erected to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust and to support survivors and their families in working through the traumatic memories of the past”. It is this resilience which has enabled the second generation the world over to prosper and thrive, to rebuild communities, bear witness, and carry on the legacy of their parents, as well as their own.
The experiences of the children of survivors begin with those of their parents. For those who survived the Holocaust as children, there are several factors that determine how their experiences are passed on. Denial, or hiding, of ones Jewish identity or heritage depended largely on their immediately location following World War II. Where they are currently living is irrelevant, even if they are not at risk for persecution or anti-Semitism in their current country of residence. The religious upbringing of child survivors also plays a role. Those raised in Orthodox homes often hold onto and pass down their heritage, while those raised in more assimilated homes are more likely to hide it.
A study on Dutch Jewish children of parent survivors, published in the Bulletin of the Jerusalem Centre for Research Into the Late Effects of the Holocaust, drew upon already published reports, and research done in coordination with different therapists from several Dutch organizations, both Jewish and non-Jewish, government funded and private. Previously published reports had concluded that the homes of children of survivors had several things in common. Firstly, there family life is based either on reviving Judaism, as a religion and culture, or centered on achieving a sense of “psychological security”. Children reported their parents were overly anxious regarding their security and often overprotective. In addition, many spoke of secrecy, about “…the existence of a family secret…[and] silence about persecution and murdered family members, and the emotions involved”. Children of survivors spoke about problems with forming their identity, insecurity, vulnerability, struggling with their family history, anxiety, guilt, and aggression. So prevalent are these traits among the children of survivors that “…members of the second generation have so many characteristics in common that they easily recognize themselves in other members of the group. Together they are more able to identify deeper, underlying problems”.
A study of American children of survivors found that the willingness of their parents to discuss the Holocaust had an impact on how their children identified. In homes where parents were more open, children were more likely to have a stronger ethnic, cultural, or religious Jewish identity, while children raised in homes where it was not spoken about were more likely to feel ashamed, and attempt to distance themselves from any affiliation with Jewish identity. The children of survivors who had intermarried reported a weakened Jewish identity, while overall, children of survivors who had some level of Jewish identity were found be more involved activism regarding defense of Israel and the Jewish people. The American study contrasted with the Dutch findings; whereby American children of survivors were more likely to identify with Israel and Judaism, while the Dutch respondents expressed that “…for many of them Jewish history offers no attractive alternative for interpretation, as Jewish history is linked with suffering and danger”.
One of the most profoundly impacted groups was the Hasidim. The lasting impact of the Holocaust determined the framework within which they lived their lives. Hasidic Judaism is a strict stream of Orthodox Judaism that, for hundreds of years, was centered in Eastern Europe. The theological beliefs of the Hasidim and the enormous influence held by the Rabbis contributed to the communities’ destruction during the Holocaust, and shaped the way they rebuilt in America. Each Hasidic sect, whether it be Belz, Satmar, Breslov, Bobov, Chabad-Lubavitch, or a number of other smaller sects, were centered around the Rabbinical dynasties. Theology was inseparable from politics and daily life, and frequently came first and foremost in decision-making.
In the years immediately prior to World War II, there were three central messages Hasidic Rabbis sent to their communities. The first was that of anti-Zionism. Settling in, what was at the time Mandatory Palestine, prior to the coming of the Messiah was seen as heresy, and a desecration of G-ds name. Immigration to America, a country that was considered unclean, was also discouraged. The second message was against assimilation. By holding tightly to traditional dress, continuing a high level of religious observance and encouraging the use of Yiddish as the vernacular, the religious affiliation of the Hasidism was unmistakable. Unable to assimilate or disguise themselves as gentiles, a vital means of survival was taken away. The final message was one of loyalty, where many prominent Rabbis emphasized the need for followers to stay within communities. These three messages proved damaging to the Hasidic communities throughout Eastern Europe, which experienced nearly unparalleled devastation. In Poland, formerly the heart of Hasidism, only 15% of Polish Jews survived. Yisakhar Teichthal, a Hasidic Rabbi from Czechoslovakia, was one of the few Rabbis that called for an exodus from Eastern Europe, and who altered his anti-Zionist stance in light of the worsening persecution in Europe. He spoke publicly against the anti-Zionist rulings of other Hasidic Rabbis, decrying their lack of action prior to the war, “for their fanatical opposition to the [Zionist] national movement, and for their loss of the opportunity to save the Jewish people from extermination”. The Holocaust marked the end of the prominent Hasidic dynasties in Eastern Europe.
Many of the survivors immigrated to the United States following the war, hoping to salvage what was left of their lives in Eastern Europe and rebuild in America. Many had left their religious beliefs in Europe, using American to distance themselves from the Rabbis, whose inaction only aided the destruction of their communities, and from the God they felt wasn’t present when needed most. For those who desired to rebuild, the Jewish community they found in America was worlds away from that they had left behind. Between 1881 and 1914 nearly two millions Jewish immigrants came to America. The majority of these immigrants were non-observant, moved throughout the country and didn’t build strong communities, lacked the dominant Orthodox leadership found in Eastern Europe, and assimilated, raising their children without cultural and religion traditions. Witnessing the assimilation of American Jews only made Hasidic leaders more determined to keep their traditions. The impact of the Holocaust on survivors and their children has led to the formation of vibrant and growing communities throughout the United States, especially New York and New Jersey, and in Canada, in cities such as Montreal, and in Israel, with large populations in Beitar Illit, Ashdod, and Beit Shemesh. While there are several smaller communities in Eastern Europe, the focus there is centered more on the revival of Judaism, compared to the rebuilding of Hasidic dynasties. The continuation of Hasidic Judaism into the second generation, the children of survivors, is a story of both triumph and tragedy. It has taken but one generation for Hasidic community to once “…again [establish] itself on spiritual, social, and demographic planes. In so doing it has once more proved its unbelievable power of survival and its inherent vitality and creativity”. Survivors, and their children, have passed on their distinctly Eastern European characteristics and ways of life; Yiddish as an everyday language, strict religious and cultural traditions, and fervent efforts to prevent assimilation. The tragedy comes from the shattered worldview of Hasidic Jews. Survivors, and their descendants, struggled with anger towards their Rabbis, who had just years ago held a near ineffable position within their society. A deeply held mistrust of those outside the community, as memories of neighbors who had turned on them remained vivid, lead to the isolation of many Hasidic sects. These feelings were passed down, alongside “…grave theological misgivings, a desperate quest for divine providence, profound guilt feelings, and attempts to explain the catastrophe as a divine punishment”.
The founding of the modern State of Israel, on May 14th 1948, the embodiment of the Zionist dreams of Theodore Herzl and David Ben-Gurion, altered the future of the Jewish people. Many of Israel’s new immigrants and citizens were Holocaust survivors, and today their children and grandchildren represent a significant demographic cohort of Israeli society. Living in Israel has provided a different life than experienced by those in the diaspora. A 2003 study published in The American Journal of Psychiatry examined the presence of trauma in Holocaust survivors, their daughters and their granddaughters, in families that had been living in Israel for the past 50 to 60 years. The findings were compared to those of a separate group of Israelis, who had made aliyah with their parents prior to World War II. The study found that “…there were significantly more subjects suffering from unresolved loss and trauma…”within the survivors, than with those who had immigrated prior to World War II. Another study, published in The Journal of Traumatic Stress, also examined impacts of the Holocaust on survivors, and their children, living in Israel. Both studies highlighted the relationship between survivors and the State of Israel.
As so many Holocaust survivors made aliyah following the war, there existed a community “…of many thousands of fellow-survivors who had lived through similar traumatic experiences, and who may be the only ones to really understand their suffering”. For Holocaust survivors, living in a Jewish state meant that anti-Semitism was unlikely, that they were the majority. A government meant that for the first time, there was Jewish self-determination, and the creation of Israel’s military, the Israel Defense Forces, meant that no longer were they reliant on others for self-defense. Building a state requires enormous effort from all citizens, and survivors were at the forefront of establishing a democratic government, founding social and cultural institutions, and creating a viable and robust economy. This focus on the creation and future of Israel was an effective way for survivors to deal with trauma. The concept of “collective memory” also plays a central role. Being a part of a nation who, together, had shared experiences acted as a “protective factor”.
Within the Israeli second generation, the children of survivors, secondary trauma was not prevalent. In instances where secondary trauma was found, it was most often in children whose parents were both survivors. However, the report published in The Journal of Traumatic Stress found that when compared to their peers, whose parents were not survivors, there was “…a significant difference in psychological well-being and adaptation between the second-generation Holocaust survivors and their comparisons”. The report also found higher rates of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in the adult children of survivors, focusing specifically on the effects of the 1982 Lebanon War. As military service is mandatory for Israeli Jews, the study found that adult children of survivors were “more vulnerable to develop PTSD in combat” than their peers. There were higher rated of PTSD among children of survivors, and their symptoms lasted longer than those of their peers.
Throughout all the studies completed and reports published, the underlying theme is by far the incredible resilience of Holocaust survivors and their children. From the Dutch second generation, who’ve struggled with identity and anxiety, all while remaining in and rebuilding a country ravaged by the War. The Hasidim in North America and Israel, who held so tightly to their former way of life, and have successfully replicated it throughout the world, to both the benefit, and at the same time the detriment, of the second generation. For many survivors, and the second generation, in Israel, the existence of a Jewish state itself became “…a symbol of the ultimate failure of the “Final Solution”…[within] Israel, various memorials have been erected to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust and to support survivors and their families in working through the traumatic memories of the past”. It is this resilience which has enabled the second generation the world over to prosper and thrive, to rebuild communities, bear witness, and carry on the legacy of their parents, as well as their own.